The political differences of the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) constitutes another dimension of approach to the study of Islamic history. In the first instance, one cannot treat Islamic history in the context as one would modern history. For modern history takes a disparagement or a condescending view of earlier history. The terms, medieval, middle ages, ancient etc. bear connotations derogatory in their nature rather than complimentary. In direct contrast, the first phase of Islamic history takes precedence over others for the true Muslim. This period was described by the Messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself as the best period in the history of mankind. Therefore, this period for the Muslim is not merely considered as history, but as a phenomenon, unprecedented in the whole of history. Later periods, which differ from it are thought of as deviating from it. It is of the nature of history that each period necessarily differs from what went on before. So does Islam but with a difference. The criterion employed throughout the ages was always compared to the standards of humanism, morality, virtue and piety.

Whereas modern history pretends to live in isolation of its past, history in Islam is intrinsically attached to the present. Modern man is in most cases apt to judge history with suspicion, distrust and disrepute, the Muslim inevitably looks up to his with respect, trust, honour and the urge of re-living the age of the Prophet of Islam (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) and his auspicious companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum). Though one has a right to objectivity, the earliest period of Islamic history cannot be re-written, though it could be re-lived. Comparing attitudes to the religious significance in history, Contwell Smith aptly draws a marked distinction between Islam and the other revealed religions in the following words, "In the old testament attitude, history itself is continuingly revelatory. History is to revelation as subject is to predicate rather than vice-versa. Classical Hebrew thought learned from history and so the modern interpretation runs, - put what it learned into its scripture and put what it learned into history."

The political difference of the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum), moreso the Khulafaa-e-Rashideen - Radhiallaahu Anhum (Rightly guided Khalifas) were of the nature strategically opposed rather than personal. As in the history of any people's, theirs too was bound to follow the natural pattern peculiar to the human nature. Hence, the dichotomy between 'Idealism and Pragmatism'. Our study here is not intended as an in-depth critique of the political differences extant in the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhu) . Such an approach in the light of the Qurânic Aayat - 'That was a people (Ummah) that have passed away. They shall reap the fruit of what they did and you of what you do' (Surah 2:141) - would possibly be termed as an exercise in futility, for no one could undo what went before. Suffice to say that the first three Khalif's preferred to adopt the latter approach in relation to the affairs of Government with the exception of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) who chose the former. Pragmatism, it succeeded to live side-by-side in greater proximity to the ideals of the Messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam), thus, compelling Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) to sacrifice his views in favour of theirs. Moreover, their differences were not as serious as made to believe by expedient groups and scholars of later periods in order to promote sentimates that lent support to their partiality.

Most earlier scholars and historians are agreed that the events which followed especially in the time of Uthmaan (Radhiallaahu Anhu), Hazrath Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) and Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) were not pre-meditated. On the contrary, they were spontaneous actions made initially as a response to the first which eventually resulted into a chain reaction. It was a wait-and-see reaction rather than offensives. Whether these responses and tactics were regular or irregular are matters of which the benefits are professed in favour of the Khalif's but again, the irregularities are perhaps understandably within human make-up when confronted by compelling circumstances. As such the benefit of the doubt in the case of the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) is also given to the opponents of the Khalifa on the merit of the Qur'anic verse 'for those things that are good remove (expiate) those that are evil'. (Surah 11:114)

Here again despite their differences, it is inconceivable for anyone to isolate Ali's (Radhiallaahu Anhu) participation, be it actively or passively, in the affairs of the state during the reign of his predecessors. His advice, his assistance to the judiciary and assistance at the time of the siege of Uthmaan (Radhiallaahu Anhu) are proof enough of his active participation. Furthermore, him being the father-in-law of Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) is yet an outstanding feature of compromise in the face of conflict, a perfect example sacrificing personal interests in the interest of Muslim brotherhood.

During the reign of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu), things however did take a major turn. Here again the idealism of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) did not allow him to maintain a status-quo previously supported by his predecessors. By this time perhaps strategically, it was too late. He was eventually compelled on to a course of collision with Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu). Though history bears testimony to the claims of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) and that Muslims throughout the ages shared common sympathy with him, the position of Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) is often exaggerated. It is true that Muawiyah lacked the standards of morality compared to his contemporaries, yet far from the allegations of sceptics and sectarianits, he was not altogether unscrupulous.

Primarily, it would be foolish for anyone to judge history, especially that of the first period in the context of the present day socio-political situation of Muslims. In addition, we as Muslims, are bound to judge that period in accordance to the Qur'anic precepts and the prophetic injunctions related to the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) and their period. Despite his shortcomings, Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) has displayed a morality far superior to ours or for that matter to any other generation after him. Moreover, he has set a precedent, a Sunnah worthy to be emulated for the whole of the Ummah, which has yet to be fulfilled in the modern age.

The Roman Emperor sent an envoy to Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) offering his help in whatever way he wished in his encounter against Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu). Thinking Muawiyah to be of loose morals and an undisciplined Muslim soldier, he was sure of a positive response.

Contrary to his expectations, he blankly refused the Emperor's offer, saying 'We Muslims are capable of solving our internal problems'. Thus, Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) had sent a precedent - a Sunnah - to which the whole Ummah is indebted. How often do we not find one Muslim nation fighting another with the help of the Kuffaar.

Hence, socially or more particularly, politically, we as Muslims have first to come to grips with this Sunnah, before reaching further the Sunan of Khulafaa-e-Rashideen (Radhiallaahu Anhum) respectively taking into account the stubborn divisions in the Ummah of the present age. Subsequent to the demise of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) - Islam under the rule of Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) spread further into Africa, Asia, and even Europe. Had he been completely unscrupled, this achievement would have been virtually impossible.

The political differences of the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) however, did influence later events. The battle of Siffin that broke out in the reign of Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) laid the foundation for those rival theories as to the qualification of the Khalifa which took definite shape in political and sectarian doctrines. These differences not withstanding, did not impinge onto the doctrines of the legal frame work founded earlier by the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum). Ironically, they were cleverly manipulated by expedient and sectarian groups into harassing schisms and divisions in the Ummah.

Yet again, let us not forget that the dichotomy between idealism and pragmatism was even more profoundly demonstrated in the two most courageous soldiers of Islam - Hassan and Hussein (Radhiallaahu Anhuma). On the one hand, we have the pragmatic and compromising approach of Hassan (Radhiallaahu Anhu), who, after having mustered an army equivalent in strength to that of Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu), voluntarily relinquished his authority to his opponent Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhu) in the wider interest of the Ummah. We have on the other hand, the idealist approach of Hussein (Radhiallaahu Anhu) who voluntarily spared his life in Karbala, protesting against the usurpation of the Khilafah by Yazid. Whilst the Ummah responds hastily to the courage and valour of Hussein (Radhiallaahu Anhu), we tend to forget or even by-pass the courage - in humility - of Hassan (Radhiallaahu Anhu). The Qur'anic expression of, 'Hard on the unbelievers and compromising amongst themselves', is barely an expression relevant to the Ummah today.

The best recourse to the question of the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) can be traced to the Qur'an itself. In Surah Ahzaab Verse 11, Allah says, 'In that situation were the believers tried; - they were shaken by a tremendous shaking'. In Verse 23 of the same Surah, Allah Ta'ala further mentions, 'Among the believers are men who are trying to their covenant with Allah'.

Here, Allah Ta'ala Himself bears testimony to the challenges faced by the Muslims at the time of the battle of the trench when Madinah was seized by the Makkan's for at least a month. And after having drawn out attention to the Messenger of Allah Ta'ala (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) as the perfect example in the preceding Aayat, Allah Ta'ala further confirms the devotion of the companions of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) as examples to the extreme whereby in the following Aayat, the faithful and the trusted companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) have been clearly distinguished from those who paid mere lip service and were more appropriately termed as hypocrites: (Surah 33:24). In Surah Fatha, Allah mentions, 'Allah sent down His tranquillity to His apostle (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) and to the believers and made them stick close to the command of Taqwa (self-restraint) and well were they entitled to it (and worthy of it).' (Verse 26). Here again Allah Ta'ala confirms that Taqwa of the companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) as examples of the highest order to which they were most deserving. In the same Surah, Allah describes the increase of faith of all those who accompanied Rasulullah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) at the time of Hudeibiyah and has promised the believers (approx. 1400) of the glad tidings of Jannah without exception. (Surah Fatah Verses 5-6).

In Verse 10 of Surah Fataha, Allah Ta'ala extends His hands over the hands of the believers and in Verse 18, Allah Ta'ala uses the word Mu'mineen (believers) for all those who swore the allegiance to His beloved Messenger (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). In the last verse of the same Surah, Allah Ta'ala mentions certain specific qualities of the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum). And the words, 'those who are with him', clearly indicates that the reference is to all the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum). Consequently, one should remember that these characteristics have not been made a condition for one to qualify as a Sahaaba (companion). On the contrary, Allah Ta'ala Himself confirms that all those who were with the messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) possessed these characteristics. These were the same characteristics perhaps, the scholars of the Torah (Old Testament), Injeel (New Testament) recognised in Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) when he conquered the Baitul Maqdas, Jerusalem. In view of these characteristics, the earliest scholars relate that the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) of the Messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) were of such calibre that if one had to set eyes upon any one of them, he would have immediately recognised him as the best of creation by the radiance of his uncompromising faith in Allah Ta'ala that reflected him in the image of his beloved Rasul (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). This is also why Imaam Maalik (RA) relates that when the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) encountered the Roman Empire, the Christian folk were often heard to say, 'These are the disciples of Esa (Jesus, ayhis salaam) whose description has been mentioned to us in the Gospel; - such men we have never seen'. Hence, our scholars are agreed that the Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) in the light of the Qur'anic Aayat 'You are the best of people' (Surah 3:110) fall under this category and are popularly known as Baitur-Ridhwaan due to the expression of the same Aayat. One should also take into consideration the grave circumstances under which the allegiance was taken.

Uthmaan (Radhiallaahu Anhu) was sent to negotiate with the Makkans to allow the Muslims perform Umrah. The rumour of him being assassinated spread. The Messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) was obviously perturbed and took a pledge from each person to avenge his murder to the best man. In the first instance, they were in Ihraam (two pieces of cloth worn by the pilgrim). They were also unarmed. Madinah was approximately 300 kms. away. They were only 1400 in number. They were well aware that if they had to go to war with the large number of Makkans, it would have meant a political suicide. If they were not firm enough in their faith or were insincere, they would have left the Prophet of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) alone just as Moosa (layhis salaam) was asked to fight his own battle by the Bani Israeel when commanded to enter the city (Surah 5:27). Even at such a critical juncture, no one among them dared to walk away or disobey. This is why Allah Ta'ala conferred upon them the certificate of His ultimate pleasure.

Consequently, it is evident from the above verses that anyone who harbours hatred or disregard to the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) or that if anyone were to claim that these Companions were only sincere and firm in their belief till the life time of the Prophet (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) after which they had reneged, - could only be tantamount to harbouring hatred for Allah Ta'ala and His Rasul (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam). For such a claim could only imply that at the time of the revelation of such Aayat (Verse), Allah Himself was unaware of their Imaan in time to come - God forbid. Why would Allah Ta'ala have declared such text as sacred for the generations to come till the Day of Judgement had He meant otherwise? Hence, if any credibility were given to such claims, then it could only infer that these people have themselves reneged against the Word of Allah Ta'ala.

We also know that the messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) did not work in a vaccuum. On the contrary, he worked amongst the most down-trodden, if not most uncivilised, people in the history of mankind. Despite these disadvantages, he was yet successful in transforming such people into one of the greatest civilisations that ever existed. Muslims are proud of the fact that such an achievement is unprecedented in the whole of the history of mankind. Even the most ardent of enemies of the orientalist scholarship, were grudgingly forced to accede to this fact. Ironically though, if the Companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) of the Messenger of Allah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) turned Murtad (Reneged) immediately after his demise, one would then be compelled to conclude that the Prophet's (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) mission ended in failure - Allah forbid. If his most trusted of companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) reneged after his demise, what then of the rest of Islam?

Conclusion

Though history did cheat us in the delegation of Yazid by Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhum) as his successor, we are on the basis of trust compelled to give him the benefit of the doubt, for to doubt the integrity of Muawiyah (Radhiallaahu Anhum) would be tantamount to undermine the integrity of Rasulullah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself; for Rasulullah (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) did entrust him with the greatest of all trusts - by having appointed him as a scribe to the Glorious Qur'an. Hence, in the interpretation of the Hadith; 'All my companions (Radhiallaahu Anhum) are just (adool)', some scholars are of the opinion that the word just refers to them having taken the utmost care in their narration and interpretation of the Deen of Allah Ta'ala rather than their practical expression. They could never have betrayed our Nabi (Sallallaahu Alayhi Wasallam) by their word (Bil Qawl) though they were not perfect in their action (Bil Fa'l).